diff --git a/cue/testdata/disjunctions/elimination.txtar b/cue/testdata/disjunctions/elimination.txtar
index b33f099..60bc35d 100644
--- a/cue/testdata/disjunctions/elimination.txtar
+++ b/cue/testdata/disjunctions/elimination.txtar
@@ -142,6 +142,46 @@
     x: { a: b: struct.MinFields(3) } | null
 }
 
+preserveClosedness: small: p1: {
+    #A: #B & {a: string}
+    #B: {
+      *{} | {a: string}
+      *{} | {b: int}
+    }
+}
+
+preserveClosedness: small: p2: {
+    #A: #B & {a: string}
+    #B: {
+      {a: string} | *{}
+      *{} | {b: int}
+    }
+}
+
+preserveClosedness: medium: p1: {
+    #A: #B & {a: string}
+    #B: {
+      *{} | {a: string} | {b: string}
+      *{} | {c: int} | {d: string}
+    }
+}
+
+preserveClosedness: medium: p2: {
+    #A: #B & {a: string}
+    #B: {
+      {a: string} | *{} | {b: string}
+      *{} | {c: int} | {d: string}
+    }
+}
+
+preserveClosedness: medium: p3: {
+    #A: #B & {a: string}
+    #B: {
+      {a: string} | {b: string} | *{}
+      *{} | {c: int} | {d: string}
+    }
+}
+
 -- out/eval --
 (struct){
   disambiguateClosed: (struct){
@@ -321,6 +361,145 @@
       }
     }
   }
+  preserveClosedness: (struct){
+    small: (struct){
+      p1: (struct){
+        #A: (struct){ |(*(#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            b: (int){ int }
+          }) }
+        #B: (struct){ |(*(#struct){
+          }, (#struct){
+            b: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            b: (int){ int }
+          }) }
+      }
+      p2: (struct){
+        #A: (struct){ |(*(#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            b: (int){ int }
+          }) }
+        #B: (struct){ |(*(#struct){
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            b: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            b: (int){ int }
+          }) }
+      }
+    }
+    medium: (struct){
+      p1: (struct){
+        #A: (struct){ |(*(#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }) }
+        #B: (struct){ |(*(#struct){
+          }, (#struct){
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            b: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            b: (string){ string }
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            b: (string){ string }
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }) }
+      }
+      p2: (struct){
+        #A: (struct){ |(*(#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }) }
+        #B: (struct){ |(*(#struct){
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            b: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            b: (string){ string }
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            b: (string){ string }
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }) }
+      }
+      p3: (struct){
+        #A: (struct){ |(*(#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }) }
+        #B: (struct){ |(*(#struct){
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            b: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            b: (string){ string }
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            b: (string){ string }
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            a: (string){ string }
+          }, (#struct){
+            c: (int){ int }
+          }, (#struct){
+            d: (string){ string }
+          }) }
+      }
+    }
+  }
 }
 -- out/compile --
 --- in.cue
@@ -785,4 +964,101 @@
       }
     }
   }
+  preserveClosedness: {
+    small: {
+      p1: {
+        #A: (〈0;#B〉 & {
+          a: string
+        })
+        #B: {
+          (*{}|{
+            a: string
+          })
+          (*{}|{
+            b: int
+          })
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  preserveClosedness: {
+    small: {
+      p2: {
+        #A: (〈0;#B〉 & {
+          a: string
+        })
+        #B: {
+          ({
+            a: string
+          }|*{})
+          (*{}|{
+            b: int
+          })
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  preserveClosedness: {
+    medium: {
+      p1: {
+        #A: (〈0;#B〉 & {
+          a: string
+        })
+        #B: {
+          (*{}|{
+            a: string
+          }|{
+            b: string
+          })
+          (*{}|{
+            c: int
+          }|{
+            d: string
+          })
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  preserveClosedness: {
+    medium: {
+      p2: {
+        #A: (〈0;#B〉 & {
+          a: string
+        })
+        #B: {
+          ({
+            a: string
+          }|*{}|{
+            b: string
+          })
+          (*{}|{
+            c: int
+          }|{
+            d: string
+          })
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  preserveClosedness: {
+    medium: {
+      p3: {
+        #A: (〈0;#B〉 & {
+          a: string
+        })
+        #B: {
+          ({
+            a: string
+          }|{
+            b: string
+          }|*{})
+          (*{}|{
+            c: int
+          }|{
+            d: string
+          })
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
 }
diff --git a/cue/types.go b/cue/types.go
index e140bee..b85cfbf 100644
--- a/cue/types.go
+++ b/cue/types.go
@@ -1831,7 +1831,7 @@
 	if v.v == nil || other.v == nil {
 		return false
 	}
-	return adt.Equal(v.ctx().opCtx, v.v, other.v)
+	return adt.Equal(v.ctx().opCtx, v.v, other.v, false)
 }
 
 // Format prints a debug version of a value.
diff --git a/internal/core/adt/disjunct.go b/internal/core/adt/disjunct.go
index e7db3cd..bb31c03 100644
--- a/internal/core/adt/disjunct.go
+++ b/internal/core/adt/disjunct.go
@@ -187,6 +187,34 @@
 
 		n.disjuncts = append(n.disjuncts, n)
 
+		// HACK: this is an AWFUL, AWFUL HACK to work around a limitation of
+		// using defaults for marking oneOfs in protobuffers. Previously this
+		// was worked around by another hack that (deliberately erroneously)
+		// would move the default status of a disjunct of which only one
+		// disjunct remained from "not default" to "maybe default". For
+		// protobuf oneOfs this would mean that only the "intended" struct would
+		// get the default value. It also worked around various other
+		// limitations.
+		//
+		// With the latest performance enhancements this old hack still worked,
+		// but only because it introduced a bug that this hack relied on. Fixing
+		// this bug now causes this hack to no longer work.
+		//
+		// Ultimately, the correct way to address the issue for the protobuf
+		// representation is not to use defaults at all. Instead we should use
+		// the required annotator (which fixes a whole load of other issues):
+		//
+		//    {} | {a!: int} | {b!: int}
+		//
+		// This would force that only one of these can be true independent of
+		// default magic. Aside from fixing this issue, it also moves to a model
+		// that is consistent with the recommendation to not use defaults in
+		// a top-level API specification.
+		//
+		// The hack we use now recognizes the oneOf patterns and then sets the
+		// default for the "smallest" element.
+		protoForm := true
+
 		for i, d := range n.disjunctions {
 			a := n.disjuncts
 			n.disjuncts = n.buffer[:0]
@@ -197,6 +225,23 @@
 				n.ctx.inDisjunct++
 			}
 
+			// HACK: see above
+			defaultCount := 0
+			override := true
+			if d.expr == nil {
+				override = false
+			} else {
+				for _, v := range d.expr.Values {
+					if !d.hasDefaults || v.Default {
+						defaultCount++
+						if s, ok := v.Val.(*StructLit); !ok || len(s.Decls) > 0 {
+							protoForm = false
+							override = false
+						}
+					}
+				}
+			}
+
 			for _, dn := range a {
 				switch {
 				case d.expr != nil:
@@ -208,6 +253,12 @@
 						c := MakeConjunct(d.env, v.Val, d.cloneID)
 						cn.addExprConjunct(c)
 
+						if override {
+							if s, ok := v.Val.(*StructLit); ok && len(s.Decls) == 0 {
+								cn.protoCount++
+							}
+						}
+
 						newMode := mode(d.hasDefaults, v.Default)
 						cn.defaultMode = combineDefault(dn.defaultMode, newMode)
 
@@ -249,6 +300,25 @@
 			}
 		}
 
+		// HACK: see above
+		if protoForm {
+			min := int32(0)
+			minPos := 0
+			for i, d := range n.disjuncts {
+				if d.defaultMode == isDefault {
+					min = 0
+					break
+				}
+				if d.protoCount > min {
+					min = d.protoCount
+					minPos = i
+				}
+			}
+			if min > 0 {
+				n.disjuncts[minPos].defaultMode = isDefault
+			}
+		}
+
 		// HACK alert: this replaces the hack of the previous algorithm with a
 		// slightly less worse hack: instead of dropping the default info when
 		// the value was scalar before, we drop this information when there
@@ -271,7 +341,7 @@
 	outer:
 		for _, d := range n.disjuncts {
 			for _, v := range p.disjuncts {
-				if Equal(n.ctx, &v.result, &d.result) {
+				if Equal(n.ctx, &v.result, &d.result, true) {
 					if d.defaultMode == isDefault {
 						v.defaultMode = isDefault
 					}
diff --git a/internal/core/adt/equality.go b/internal/core/adt/equality.go
index ca7b41f..de57df9 100644
--- a/internal/core/adt/equality.go
+++ b/internal/core/adt/equality.go
@@ -14,17 +14,17 @@
 
 package adt
 
-func Equal(ctx *OpContext, v, w Value) bool {
+func Equal(ctx *OpContext, v, w Value, optional bool) bool {
 	if x, ok := v.(*Vertex); ok {
-		return equalVertex(ctx, x, w)
+		return equalVertex(ctx, x, w, optional)
 	}
 	if y, ok := w.(*Vertex); ok {
-		return equalVertex(ctx, y, v)
+		return equalVertex(ctx, y, v, optional)
 	}
-	return equalTerminal(ctx, v, w)
+	return equalTerminal(ctx, v, w, optional)
 }
 
-func equalVertex(ctx *OpContext, x *Vertex, v Value) bool {
+func equalVertex(ctx *OpContext, x *Vertex, v Value, opt bool) bool {
 	y, ok := v.(*Vertex)
 	if !ok {
 		return false
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@
 	if x.IsClosed(ctx) != y.IsClosed(ctx) {
 		return false
 	}
-	if !equalOptional(ctx, x, y) {
+	if opt && !equalClosed(ctx, x, y) {
 		return false
 	}
 
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@
 	for _, a := range x.Arcs {
 		for _, b := range y.Arcs {
 			if a.Label == b.Label {
-				if !Equal(ctx, a, b) {
+				if !Equal(ctx, a, b, opt) {
 					return false
 				}
 				continue loop1
@@ -81,12 +81,10 @@
 		return true // both are struct or list.
 	}
 
-	return equalTerminal(ctx, v, w)
+	return equalTerminal(ctx, v, w, opt)
 }
 
-// equalOptional tests if x and y have the same set of close information.
-// Right now this just checks if it has the same source structs that
-// define optional fields.
+// equalClosed tests if x and y have the same set of close information.
 // TODO: the following refinements are possible:
 // - unify optional fields and equate the optional fields
 // - do the same for pattern constraints, where the pattern constraints
@@ -95,14 +93,14 @@
 //
 // For all these refinements it would be necessary to have well-working
 // structure sharing so as to not repeatedly recompute optional arcs.
-func equalOptional(ctx *OpContext, x, y *Vertex) bool {
+func equalClosed(ctx *OpContext, x, y *Vertex) bool {
 	return verifyStructs(x, y) && verifyStructs(y, x)
 }
 
 func verifyStructs(x, y *Vertex) bool {
 outer:
 	for _, s := range x.Structs {
-		if !s.StructLit.HasOptional() {
+		if s.closeInfo == nil || s.closeInfo.span|DefinitionSpan == 0 {
 			continue
 		}
 		for _, t := range y.Structs {
@@ -115,7 +113,7 @@
 	return true
 }
 
-func equalTerminal(ctx *OpContext, v, w Value) bool {
+func equalTerminal(ctx *OpContext, v, w Value, opt bool) bool {
 	if v == w {
 		return true
 	}
@@ -132,7 +130,7 @@
 
 	case *BoundValue:
 		if y, ok := w.(*BoundValue); ok {
-			return x.Op == y.Op && Equal(ctx, x.Value, y.Value)
+			return x.Op == y.Op && Equal(ctx, x.Value, y.Value, opt)
 		}
 
 	case *BasicType:
@@ -147,7 +145,7 @@
 		}
 		// always ordered the same
 		for i, xe := range x.Values {
-			if !Equal(ctx, xe, y.Values[i]) {
+			if !Equal(ctx, xe, y.Values[i], opt) {
 				return false
 			}
 		}
@@ -161,7 +159,7 @@
 			return false
 		}
 		for i, xe := range x.Values {
-			if !Equal(ctx, xe, y.Values[i]) {
+			if !Equal(ctx, xe, y.Values[i], opt) {
 				return false
 			}
 		}
diff --git a/internal/core/adt/eval.go b/internal/core/adt/eval.go
index 38c0c94..487b405 100644
--- a/internal/core/adt/eval.go
+++ b/internal/core/adt/eval.go
@@ -772,6 +772,7 @@
 	hasTop      bool
 	hasCycle    bool // has conjunct with structural cycle
 	hasNonCycle bool // has conjunct without structural cycle
+	protoCount  int32
 
 	// Disjunction handling
 	disjunctions []envDisjunct
diff --git a/internal/core/adt/simplify.go b/internal/core/adt/simplify.go
index c58ad47..dea3066 100644
--- a/internal/core/adt/simplify.go
+++ b/internal/core/adt/simplify.go
@@ -214,7 +214,7 @@
 				return nil
 			}
 			for i, a := range x.Args {
-				if !Equal(ctx, a, y.Args[i]) {
+				if !Equal(ctx, a, y.Args[i], false) {
 					return nil
 				}
 			}